Literature Review

Literature Review: Transformational Learning

Jessica Davidson

Ball State University

            As we age, we learn that people change. Whether it is the type of music they listen to, the color of their hair, or their undergraduate major, people change. Life requires us to grow physically, mentally, and emotionally. When that change is guided by our thoughts and evolves out of deep self-reflection, it could easily be categorized at transformational learning. Transformational learning focuses on fundamental change in the way we see ourselves and the way we see the world (Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner, 2007). Over the last three decades, many different theories of transformational learning have emerged; however, most of these theories incorporate similar steps that must take place for true transformational learning to occur. 

            This process begins with an experience. When someone is faced with a problem that challenges their current belief structure, transformational learning has the opportunity to develop. This experience can be a range of situations, including unexpected news, changing careers, or entering a new community. Once the person involved in the experience realizes that they are dealing with new or different information, they begin the next step of transformation learning: critical reflection. This phase involves examination of the experience, your current views, and possible changes that need to occur. Once a new meaning has been developed, reflective discourse is had. By engaging in discourse and hearing the opinions of others, we develop a deeper understanding of the situation and can begin the final phase of transformational learning: action. Action is an important piece to transformational learning. If someone goes through the entire process and begins to recognize a need for change, but chooses not to, learning is incomplete. 

The purpose of this review is to examine literature related to transformational learning and the major themes presented. Mezirow’s Psychocritical Approach to transformational learning, the importance of cognitive development and the role of transformational learning in education and the workforce will be discussed, followed by any possible implications found. 

Mezirow’s Psychoanalytical Approach to Transformational Learning

While there are many different theories of transformational learning, they all stem from Mezirow’s Psychoanalytical Approach. This theory was first introduced in 1978 and has since inspired many new ideas and research. However, even with expanded theories available, articles involving the use of transformational learning use Mezirow’s theory as their primary focus. Mezirow’s theory has ten steps, but most discussion focuses on the four main steps detailed above: experience, critical reflection, reflective discourse, and action. Transformational learning is not increasing our knowledge of facts and figures; it involves sharing life experiences, reflecting upon previously held assumptions, and constructing a deeper understanding (Marrocco, Wallace Kazer, & Neal-Boylan, 2014). Optimal learning will take place in an environment that promotes and nurtures the adult learner.  

Cognitive Development in Transformational Learning

As previously discussed, two critical pieces of transformational learning are critical reflection and reflective disclosure. Without going through these stages, transformational learning will not occur. Merriam (2004) argues that while transformational learning appears to be a more mature and developed level of thinking, a certain level of cognitive function and development is necessary to engage in the process. It has been assumed that this higher level of functioning is a result of transformational learning, however if a person does not have the capability to engage in reflection or discourse, specifically at the critical levels needed in this setting, transformational learning will not occur. That is not to say that continued development does not occur. Through transformational learning, people improve their ability to question the status quo and ensure they are not working under false assumptions (McNaron, 2009). The articles that I read focused on transformational learning among graduate students and faculty. Because of the need for higher cognitive function, it makes sense that this population is often chosen for studying transformational learning. 

Transformational Learning in an Educational Setting

Because of the need for higher cognitive functioning, transformational learning is often used in an educational setting, specifically with advanced degree programs. As educators struggle to find ways to help students prepare for a complex and rapidly changing future, they have realized that in addition to informational learning, they must teach their students to confront challenges and question the paradigm. Over the last few decades, we have realized the importance of transformational learning, and it has begun to overshadow andragogy as the primary learning theory of adult education (Yukawa, 2015). 

A study completed in 2014 integrated the use of podcasts into a nursing program. The purpose of this study was to use podcasting as a way to enhance and encourage self-directed learning. This was done within the framework of transformational learning. Selected faculty members were asked to use podcasts as part of their curriculum and then conduct end-of-year evaluations to gauge student opinions. While faculty embraced the use of podcasts, students had mixed feelings about them. Many of them found that the podcasts created extra work that took away from the learning experience. While podcasts may not be the answer for all, using new teaching methods can promote transformational learning and foster an environment that promotes student involvement and meets the needs of modern students (Marrocco, Wallace Kazer, & Neal-Boylan, 2014).

Another study was completed in 2016 that explored the relationship between quality improvement projects and transformational learning in medical students. Groups of students were rotated through learning centers in South Africa and their reports were analyzed over a period of three years. Many themes were identified through the analysis of these reports.  Main themes included Situated Learning, Facing Dilemmas, and Making a Difference. Through these projects students gained a greater understanding of themselves, and the healthcare system in the real world. These themes suggest that while participating in quality improvement projects, student underwent transformational learning as their worldview was changed (Bergh, Bac, Hugo, & Sanders, 2016).

Transformational Learning in the Workplace

Transformational learning can be used in similar ways in the workplace. As stated in a study regarding the use of transformational learning to change behaviors in the OR, as development occurs, individual practices before more mature and patient care continually improves. In regards to discourse, reflection with team member can add alternate viewpoints, which can then validate, modify, or reverse original perceptions (McNaron, 2009). Using transformational learning can then affect an organization’s culture and help create an atmosphere that supports and encourages personal growth, along with reflection and evaluation. 

With all of the new technology that is constantly being produced, when working in the medical field it is crucial that people are open to new ideas. As new concepts are presented, we need to be able to critically reflect on their use, have meaningful discourse with peers, and ultimately decide if we wish to pursue these new techniques. This is the definition of transformational learning. If medical professionals are not keeping abreast of new developments, they can hold faulty assumptions that could potentially lead to negative outcomes or perpetuate poor practices. For this reason, it is important that these workplaces develop a place of open-mindedness. McNaron’s (2009) study listed many ways to keep transformational learning in the workplace. These methods include peer discussion, organized groups, questioning practices, journaling, and research, among others.

Implications

The implications gathered from these articles are fairly straightforward. When we use transformational learning, as both a student and an educator, it is important that we follow all of the steps associated with Mezirow’s theory: experience, critical reflection, reflective discourse, and action. By fully utilizing these principles, we can further develop our cognitive skills, create honest, open classrooms full of meaningful conversations, and find a type of personal growth that cannot be seen with traditional, informational learning styles. 

Reflection

I had a difficult time with this assignment. For me, the topic of transformational learning, while fascinating, is too broad. I found a difficult time locating articles that felt substantial in their ideas. However, I feel that having a deep understanding of transformational learning is a critical part of each graduate student’s education. Building an ability to have self-reflection and then open yourself up to having meaningful discourse can be an intimidating task. 

Table 1

	General Themes	Implications
Idea 1	Mezirow’s Psychoanalytic Theory	Primary transformation theory used in today’s schools and workplaces; involves using four key steps to make meaningful change.
Idea 2	Cognitive Development	Without a high level of cognitive development, we are unable to adequately engage in critical reflection and reflective discourse.
Idea 3	Transformational Learning in Schools	Using transformational learning can help students develop an open mind for learning new ideas and concepts.
Idea 4	Transformational Learning in the Workplace	Use of transformational learning in a work environment leads to open and trusting spaces where employees feel safe in suggesting and developing new ideas and techniques.

References

Bergh, A.-M., Bac, M., Hugo, J., & Sandars, J. (2016, July 11). “Making a difference” – Medical students’ opportunities for transformational change in health care and learning through quality improvement projects. BMC Medical Education. DOI: 10.1186/s12909-016-0694-1

Marrocco, G. F., Kazer, M. W., & Neal-Boylan, L. (2014). Transformational learning in graduate nurse education through podcasting. Nursing Education Perspectives, 35(1), 49-53. doi: 10.5480/10-421.1

Merriam, S.B. (2004). The Role of Cognitive Development in Mezirow’s Transformational Learning Theory. Adult Education Quarterly, 55(1), 60-68. doi: 10.1177/0741713604268891

Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide. San Fransisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

McNaron, M. E. (2009). Using Transformational Learning Principles to Change Behavior in the OR. Association of Operating Room Nurses. AORN Journal, 89(5), 851-60. doi: http://dx.doi.org.proxy.bsu.edu/10.1016/j.aorn.2009.01.027

Yukawa, J. (2015). Preparing for Complexity and Wicked Problems through Transformational Learning Approaches. Journal of Education for Library and Information Science, 56(2). 158-168. doi: 10.12783/issn.2328-2967/56/2/6

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A Literature Review of Transformational Learning in Adult Education

Keersten Wilkey, EDAC 634, Ball State University

Transformational Learning is the topic that I chose to do our big project on. At first, I was confused what transformational learning was until I read about this subject. I then realized that this is a learning style that I practiced often while sitting through class at Ball State. I transformed the way I think and feel about certain topics throughout my three years at Ball State. In simple terms, transformational learning can be classified as an individual determining or changing their own beliefs, feelings, and practices while learning about a subject. An example of transformational learning that occurred for me while in college is how I view classroom teaching strategies. Before entering college, I believed that classroom structure should be how it was set up at my high school. This means that we all sit in desks and listen to a teacher lecture for 50 minutes and then get assigned homework. Once I got to college, this classroom structure changed. My professors expected us to participate during the lecture by being involved in discussion, working in groups to figure out problems, and telling personal experiences that pertain to the lecture. My view on classroom structure changed drastically. 

I noticed when I went back to my old high school that I attended to work as a teacher aide, that my view on how a classroom structure should be had changed. I wish I could be the lead teacher so I could get the students talking and interacting like how I did at college. My new belief I learned was that individuals learn better when there are different dynamics of learning to learn through. As a future college professor, I will make sure to implement my views and beliefs of classroom structure into my classroom. I will want my students to participate in discussion, work in groups to figure out problems, and tell personal stories of topics that they have experienced. I learned to transform my beliefs during college and will take what I believe and apply it to the real world. 

“Transformative learning happens when someone changes “not just the way he behaves, not just the way he feels, but the way he knows—not just what he knows but the way he knows” (Pautiatine, 2012). Transformational learning is happening all around us in the world. We are having experiences and learning moments that are changing the way we learn and the way in which we know the world. “Transformation must encompass not just a formational development of the self (mind, heart, spirit, and so on) but also an actual remaking of that self and the very way in which the self knows the world.” (Pautiatine, 2012). My mom is an instructor at Ivy Tech for nursing students. Her job is to transform her students from contextual learners to critical thinking learners. This doesn’t mean that she is just changing the student’s point of view on certain topics, but rather she is teaching them to learn completely different in all aspects of their education and thinking process. She wants them to be able to help patients and to think critically what they should do to help the patient. 

General Themes

Theme 1

            Transformational learning is used to change an individual and the way they see things in the world. The first theme that is important when it comes to transformational learning is experience. An example of experience that individuals can receive is through simulation in the classroom. “Simulation integrates principles of social cognitive theory (SCT) into an interactive approach to learning that encompasses the core principles of intentionality, forethought, self-reactiveness, and self-reflectiveness” (Burke, 2012). Simulations are happening in classrooms to show students how to do something in a real life situation. An example of a simulation that I have witnessed is nursing students working on a manikin patient. In my mom’s classroom, they have a simulation lab set up of eight manikins that are laying in hospital beds. Students do simulation labs that help them to learn how to take vital signs, take blood pressure, put in IV’s, and learn bedside manner. There is one manikin in particular that talks to the students and lets them know symptoms of what is wrong with them. This gives students a change to use what they have learned to determine what might be wrong with the patient. “Faculty create an environment conducive to learning, structure pre-simulation and post-simulation activities that foster symbolic coding operations, provide the structure for skill rehearsal supporting motor retention processes, and promote self-regulation of behavior and self-efficacy during the simulation and debriefing process.” (Burke, 2012). Simulations are commonly used to help students have a hands on learning experience before actually performing this skill in a real life setting. In the simulation example above, instructors show students how to put in an IV on a manikin rather than having students learn on a real life patient. “Simulation learning is uniquely suited to promoting student anticipatory control over similar future clinical situations in support of metacognition.” (Burke, 2012). This can help students build up their skill level while also building up their confidence. 

Theme 2

            The second theme that is important to transformational learning is critical reflection. Talking about the experience and reflecting on the experience can help student comprehend and remember key details of their experience. “Critical reflection can support professional development through assessment of decisions and actions and it can lead to improvements in service delivery.” (Smith, 2011). An example of critical reflection could be having a group discussion about the simulation experience that nursing students have just experienced. After an IV simulation, students can reflect as a group what part of doing the IV was tough for them to complete. They could also explain what the easiest part of putting in an IV was. They can discuss the steps of how they put in an IV in the patients arm. They can reflect on how to keep a patient that is scared of needles calm throughout the IV process. They can talk about ways that they would talk to the patient throughout the IV process. All of this group discussion can lead to the students reviewing the skills that they have learned while also asking questions and reflecting on the skills that they have learned. This critical reflection could lead to further thinking in individuals. This can lead students to reflect on their values and beliefs of the process they have completed. “Critical reflection is also held as a way of examining our own subjective thoughts about who we are, our identities, beliefs and so on.” (Smith, 2011).

Theme 3

            The third theme that is important in transformational learning is reflective discourse. Reflective discourse is when learners go from thinking contextually to thinking in terms of their personal experiences and their beliefs that formed during the simulation experience and through the critical thinking stage. An instructor’s job at this point of transformational learning is to facilitate reflection and conversation rather than teaching students what to think about the experience. “Reflective discourse has a peculiar effect on adult learning because of our innate capacity to defend ourselves (reflectively) against ourselves” (Regan, 2012). An example of how to implement reflective discourse in the classroom would be to have students reflect their thoughts and beliefs with other individuals that were present in the learning experience. Expressing to others how you felt about the learning experience can have them reflect on how they felt about the learning experience. This is the stage in transformational learning where you begin to question your beliefs and attitudes about a particular topic. Continuing with the example of the nursing students doing the simulation with the IV, the reflective discourse stage can have the students question what they believe is the best way to insert an IV. “This self -examination difficulty requires a critical assessment of taken for granted assumptions (bias, beliefs, preconceptions), identifying any supporting evidence and influential communication with others.” (Regan, 2012).

Theme 4

The last theme that is important to transformational learning is action. Going back to how nursing students use simulations to learn, this part of the transformational learning process is using what the individuals have learned and applying it to real life experiences. Their beliefs can change compared to when they first began the simulation. An example of this would be that an individual learned bedside manner. They did a simulation to where they had to practice taking care of a patient. “Simulations allow students to observe the sequelae of the care they provide and decisions they make, both good and bad, without causing harm to an actual patient.” (Gates, 2012). After their simulation, they might examine their beliefs in how they think they should interact with a patient. The nursing student can then change their beliefs on bedside manner and apply their beliefs once they have real life patients. This is the action part of transformational learning. 

Reflection

            The uniqueness of my project is that I have experienced transformational learning throughout my whole college career. I also have a mom that is involved in the transformational learning process with her students. I completed this assignment by reading literature online, asking my mom questions about her experience with transformational learning, and reflecting back on my own experiences in learning. I have learned how to find reliable information on the internet through a database. I have also practiced how to lay out my ideas before beginning my paper. This made it easier for me to organize my paper. Overall, I found this paper and research experience beneficial to learning about transformational learning. 

Main ideas and themes in the literature	Application of main ideas in practice
Experience (ex: simulations)	Simulations give students a hands on experience on the topic they are learning about.
Critical Reflection	Individuals reflect on the experience that have participated in.
Reflection Discourse	Individuals begin to rethink and question their beliefs.
Action due to newly formed beliefs

References

Burke, Helen,EdD., R.N., & Mancuso, Lorraine, MSN/Ed,R.N., B.C. (2012). Social cognitive

theory, metacognition, and simulation learning in nursing education.Journal of Nursing Education, 51(10), 543-548. doi:http://dx.doi.org.proxy.bsu.edu/10.3928/01484834-20120820-02

Gates, M. G., Parr, M. B., & Hughen, J. E. (2012). Enhancing nursing knowledge using high-

fidelity simulation. Journal of Nursing Education, 51(1), 9-15. doi:             http://dx.doi.org/10.3928/01484834-20111116-01

Poutiatine, M. I., & Conners, D. A. (2012). The role of identity in transformational learning,

teaching, and leading. New Directions For Teaching & Learning, 2012(130), 67-75.

Regan, P. (2012). Reflections of specialist community public health nurse practice development:

Transformative learning through mezirow's reflective discourse.International Practice Development Journal, 2(2) Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.proxy.bsu.edu/docview/1550838161?accountid=8483

Smith, E. (2011). Teaching critical reflection. Teaching In Higher Education, 16(2), 211-22

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Literature Review: Transformational Learning

Raymond Bass

Ball State University EDAC 634

            In transformation theory, it is important to ensure adult learners and educators understand the relationship between life and learning experiences.  Not all people are afforded a privilege life, (education, resources) and facing police, political, and social injustice.  However, this theory affects people from the inner-city to the rural communities or the country.  The main purpose of transformational education is to engage more adult educators to become more productive members of society.  Transformative learning is all about change.  This could be the change in which we see ourselves and the world in which we live in.  The best known sociocultural approach is Mezirow’s psychoanalytical approach, which has been around for decades.  Researchers found his information to be around as early as the late 1900’s.  His approach has encouraged people from all around the world to engage in more research practices promoting a form of idealism. Mezirow views transformational learning as “the process of using a prior interpretation to construe a new or revised meaning of one’s experience to guide future actions” (Merriam, Caffarell,& Baumgartner).  From what I received from this information is, this is when something happens in a person’s life and the outcome of the event or situation is a very significant one.  This changes how a person may think, act or feel.  He also states that there are four main components of the transformational process and they are: experience, critical reflection, reflective discourse and action.

            I have reviewed some literature based on transformation learning and I will address some pros and cons of transformation learning in a workplace environment, in an educational environment, and the society as a whole. 

            I work for the Marion County Public Health Department and our administrators are big on making transitions within are department (Housing & Neighborhood Health).  One reason they are extremely big with making certain types of transitions is because we have to be able to respond to the needs of the Citizens of Marion County with accuracy and efficacy.  And everyone knows that technology has played a vital role in are communication process since the early 2000’s. This something have a negative impact on older workers since some have not had computer training in years.  Staying up to date with the latest technology will help the corporation expand with more partnerships and agencies across Marion County.  Help sessions are set up for personnel experiencing difficulties with any of the programs.  This shows why adult learners also need the correct training in regards to technology.  In communities where accesses to resources are limited, the country needs to address these needs to ensure an equal playing field is established not only in the workforce but in an educational setting as well.

            Although many of our schools were not equipped with all the resources that were necessary to do the jobs, teachers improvised and made sure students were equipped to survive in colleges’ best with what they had.  According to Badat, (2010), “The problem until very recently has been that the creation of effective developmental trajectories for all higher education institutions, and especially the historically disadvantaged, has encountered inadequate financial support on the government”. In order for our youth and adult learners to get the best out of there learning experiences we must incorporate modern day technology, literature, professional associates and provide graduates with continuing education to stay in touch with the community we serve.  Educators must incorporate techniques and strategies to help individuals who are feeling lost adapt to finding a way to feel more comfortable with their transformational learning process.   Depending on the individual this can be a good or bad outcome.

            Often time’s transformation learner occurs when there are changes in one or more of our belief systems, patterns, or attitudes.  When I go back to my home town Gary, Indiana, I see people that I have not seen in decades due to them being incarcerator.  I was always taught that some people will never change and some people will change.  You could always tell the individuals that changed while they were serving time in prison because they had another total perspective on life.  This was because they change their people, place and things, their attitude and their beliefs so they would be a better person and a productive member in society.  As Brock, (2010) stated, “this changes the way people will navigate and work in the 21^st century”.  Can you imagine being behind bars for an extension period of time and when you get out technology has reached its all-time high and things were just not the same when you went in.  This often leads to convicted felons returning to prison because they cannot make the appropriate adjustment in society. When a person can adapt to the changes of life their outcome tend to be more positive than others who did not adjust.

            Transformational outcomes could be positive to a person who did not have faith or just did not believe in themselves providing them with opportunities of making positive moves to increase their value in the job market and it could also encourage them to pursue higher education to obtain their degree and to stay aware of current events that are happening in today’s society. 

            When we use transformational learning, it is important that we perform a proper assessment, monitor, and most importantly perform follow ups to our adult learners and our educators.  However, the steps that should be taken should be experience, critical reflection and actions. Allowing us to follow these theories will help us as educator enforce a positive, respectful, honest and helping environment for the youth and our adult learners.  This will allow for our students to be highly involved in their reflective learning process which would have a greater impact on the student education and educational practices.  

            In my opinion, transformational learning takes place daily.  Every day we are learning new ideas, strategies, technologies and a host of other information that will carry us further along down the line in the world we live in.  It’s important that we offer suggestions, strategies and techniques to get the youth and adult learners the chance to grow and become a better product of society.  The topic transformational learning is quite broad but I strongly feel that each and every one of use incorporates this type of learning in our life styles each day.  Educators have done this by helping people free them from the constraint of not being able to read, write, calculate or have an occupational skill.  During many centuries, very few people had the opportunity to take part in a formalized educational program of any type, much less vocational education.  Education was often associated with religion, and more formal education other than the basic reading and writing was reserved for religious leaders. For centuries, the earliest forms of sophisticated vocational education in an occupational skill. If I implemented a program that helps engage adult learners would include but not limited to:  Ensuring all candidates learn vital information from these areas. In my opinion, I believe that African Americans are having the most problem out of transformation learning, especially the individuals that have been incarcerator for many years.  .  According to Henry (1995), “It is not easy for Black America to empower itself when all the odds appear to be against the community. Many members of Black America find themselves being afraid to participate openly in the political and economic processes that might empower the Black Community. This fear has led many in Black America to believe that they must exhibit a racelessness persona in order to achieve vertical mobility in America”.  Leadership if working primarily in literacy education programs often times educators were working against the status quo.

Transformational learning in a school environment	Make good grades Have more friends Outspoken Leadership skills	Make bad grades Have less friends Shy
Transformational learning in a work environment	Some senior personnel are nervous Scared of change Leadership skills	Establish relation ships Advance in technical issues
Transformational learning in today’s society	Adapt to the “code” of the streets Leadership skills/leader not follower	Aware of surroundings Learning/morals/values

References

Badat., S. The challenges of Transformation in higher education and training institutions

            In South African (2010).

Brock, S (2010) Measuring the Important of Precursor Steps to Transformation

Learning

Henry., O.C., Black Community/Black American (December 28, 1995). Retrieved on-line

Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S & Baumgartner, L. (2007).Learning in adulthood: A

            Comprehension guide (3^rd Ed)

Personal interview (10-16)  ________________________________________________________________________ 

A Literature Review of Transformational Learning in Adult Education

Ball State University

Lecia Overley

EDAC 634 - Fall 2016

Introduction to Transformational Learning

The theory of Transformational Learning, introduced by Jack Mezirow in 1978, has been widely examined since its introduction. His theory surrounds how adults make sense of their lives He views transformational learning as “the process of using a prior interpretation to construe a new or revised interpretation of the meaning of one’s experience in order to guide future action” (Merriam, Caffarell, & Baumgartner).  The readings refer to this change as a significant event that alters the person’s perspective from what it once was and influences their future behavior, thoughts, and beliefs. He suggests that there are four main components of the transformational learning process: experience, critical reflection, reflective discourse, and action. (Merriam, Caffarell, & Baumgartner). Sabra Brock asserts that “from the educator’s perspective, transformational learning is when a learner is struck by a new concept or way of thinking and then follows through to make life change; it supplements more common types of learning such as acquiring facts or learning new skills. (Brock 2010, p.123).  

The following are Mezriow’s 10 steps Mezirow asserts lead to a change in one’s view of the world:  

1) a disorienting dilemma; 2) self-examination with feelings of guilt or shame; 3) recognition that one’s discontent and the process of transformation are shared and that others have negotiated similar change 4) exploration of options for new roles, relationships, and actions; 5) a critical assessment of assumptions; 6) provisional trying of new roles 7) planning of a course of action; 8) acquisition of knowledge and skills for implementing one’s plans; 9) building of competence and self-confidence in new roles and relationships; and 10) a reintegration into one’s life on the basis of conditions dictated by one’s new perspective (Brock 2010 p.123) 

Outcomes of Transformation Learning

Transformational learning occurs when there is a transformation in one of our beliefs or attitudes (a meaning scheme) or a transformation of our entire perspective (habits of mind) (Merriam, Caffarella, Baumgartner 2007). Simply put, the result of transformational learning is a more enlightened individual that has had a change in personal views, or a belief that has altered future behavior.  Individuals that have had a transformational learning experience change who they are by changing their own long-held beliefs and attitudes.  This changes the way they navigate life experiences. As adults working in the twenty-first century, we will need transformational learning skills to adapt to the face-paced work place. (Brock, 2010 p.125) 

Cognitive Development and Transformational Learning

 I stumbled onto the notion that to truly have a transformational learning experience, one needs to be of a higher cognitive level. This concept is interesting as I struggle to identify with the complexities of transformational learning both as an individual and as an adult education practitioner.  Sherran Merriam notes “…that in transformational learning, one’s values, belief’s and assumptions compose the lens through which personal experience is mediated and made sense of.  When this meaning system is found to be inadequate in accommodating some life experience, through transformational learning it can be replaced with a new perspective, one that is ‘more inclusive, discriminating, open, emotionally capable of change, and reflective’; in other words, more developed” (Merriam, 2004 P 61). Tennant (1993) suggests that social norms for a particular society, at any given time, could affect what it means to be enlightened or more developed.  In conjunction with findings from a study of the undergraduate study reflecting the importance of critical reflection, alongside rational reflective discourse, these are mastery level skills and necessitate higher level of thinking.  

Effective learning does not stem from an experience, but from the personal discord and the critical reflection that results.  Mezirow identifies three types of reflection of an experience: [LT1] content reflection (thinking about the experience itself), process reflection (thinking about how to handle the experience) and premise reflection (thinking about the experience through the habit of thoughts lens). Premise reflection is the only one of the three that leads on to transformational learning. Once the disorienting dilemma (experience) starts the transformational learning process, one must have the ability to engage in self-examination of one’s[LT2]  held assumptions which may, consequently, illicit feelings of shame, guilt, anger or fear. One must then set aside bias, personal prejudice, and concern to discuss and evaluate a new meaning (Merriam, 2004 p. 62).  It stands to reason that this complex process requires an ability to solve at a higher level.  Many adults do not operate at these higher levels. Studies based on Piaget’s model indicate perhaps half of adults operate at a formal operation level.  Merriam went on to site studies that support the idea that many adults do not have the capabilities to process experiences according to Mezirow’s theory of transformational learning (Merriam, 2010). Basseches (1984) explains how the ability to think dialectically is a developmental, transformative process; non-dialectical thinking equates to “cognitive rigidity.”  However, as we have read, transformational learning by definition brings one to a higher-level of thinking.  Flippantly, I would describe it as the what came first, the chicken or the egg theory.  

The experts paint transformational learning as a continuum. Yes, one must have a certain degree of self-awareness to question one’s beliefs or assumptions when posed with an experience that they are unprepared to resolve with his current knowledge base. However, there is argument that one can have transformational learning experiences outside of the prescribed ten steps. As one becomes more proficient, the experiences become deeper and the questions become richer.  

Transformational Learning or Good Learning

Michael Newman has proposed that “perhaps there is no such thing as transformative learning; perhaps there is just good learning’ (Newman 2012 p. 37). He goes on to argue that “transformational learning only exists in the realm of theory… with little or no basis in everyday practice” (Newman p.40).  He proposes that through learning there is, naturally, a change in a one’s outlook.  

First, Newman suggests there is a false premise that transformational learning is different from other learning in kind rather than degree, that all acts of learning share basic characteristics (Newman p.41).  John Dirkx argues “that Newman’s analysis rests on a largely sociological understanding of self-formation that minimizes important psychological dynamics associated with consciousness development. Developing a conscious relationship with one’s unconscious represents a central hallmark of critical theory of self and of transformational learning” (Dirkx, 2012 p.400). Cranton &  Kasl reflect Newman’s position being that these two differences are mutually exclusive, but suggest they can occur simultaneously in the same phenomenon  (Cranton, Kasl 2012 p.394). Mezirow describes a continuum for learning that moves from knowledge acquisition and skill to transforming habits of mind.  The value of this type of learning, while it may not be neatly categorized as present or not present, deserves further attention by educators, to have a theoretical belief system about what it is and how we facilitate it (Cranton, Kasl 2012 p.394).  This is a well-developed theory that has not been adequately replicated across academic settings with dependable outcomes. The research is dependent on self-reported and anecdotal cases that are not easily quantifiable as they based on a person’s self-perception.  Newman revisited his 2012 article in 2014 and stands behind his original position, that it is a theory not a practiced methodology. (Newman, 2014)

The second flaw he noted from the literature was the failure to separate identity from consciousness. He explains identity as the persona we present to the world as displayed in our actions, appearance and can be easily changed through our actions.  Consciousness he explains as our experience of existence, ever changing and unsubstantial as we go through life experiences (Newman,2012 p.41). Newman suggests that all good learning alters the consciousness, and that little is gained from identifying it as transformative. Dirkx rebutes that this is does not fully account for the psychic dynamic involved with self-formation (Dirkx 2012 p. 402).  Cranton and Kasl agree this is a flaw but push back that process and outcomes are not clearly delineated in transformational learning theory, and there lies some of the problem (Cranton, Kasl 2012 p 394).

Finite or flowing, the assumption that learning can be a finite experience is Newman’s third flaw.  Described as beginning with a “disorienting dilemma” and completed by “a reintegration into one’s life on the basis of conditions dictated by one’s new perspective” (Mezirow, 1978) alludes to a start-stop process. Newman proposes that learning is a series of experiences, each changing our consciousness in subtle or substantial ways; “there is a flow to life, and the learning becomes a part of that flow… the world in all its components - objective, social and subjective - is in continual change” (Newman, 2012 p 43).  Daloz supports this idea, suggesting that over time there will be many disorienting dilemmas that will go unremembered but have cumulative effect on one’s perspective and actions.  Cranton & Kasl agree on the surface, that the 10 steps, but encourage us to look deeper into Mezirow’s explanation about outcomes to see his support Newman’s position of never-ending flow of learning (Cranton & Kasl 2012 p.395). 

The necessary discourse involved while wrestling with a disorienting dilemma is the fourth flaw Newman has identified. He takes issue, specifically with two of Mezirow’s seven ideal conditions to engage in discourse, trust and empathy. Newman suggests “trust is an absolute and is not genuine in a learning environment…so long as a member of faculty is present and has anything to do with assessment, participants will perform… it is highly unlikely that any temporarily assembled group could generate this sheer, exigent kind of loyalty” (Newman 2010 p.44). So, in essence a student will always try to please the teacher.  Additionally, Newman doesn’t accept the idea to apply empathy and concern nor find commonality, unequivocally (Newman, 2012 p 44). He vehemently believes that there are people, such as pedophiles, to which he refuses to extend acceptance or understanding.  Cranton and Kasl state that one would not seek to enter into consensual discourse with everyone, the real point being that for discourse to be conducive, conditions need to be created (2012, p.395). 

As I engage in learning and subsequently take action, my change in behavior is interpreted as evidence of transformation. Newman believes mobilization is being mistaken for transformation, suggesting that learning might be building upon an already established idea and by seeking new information it builds self-confidence to then act upon a previously held belief. (Newman 2012, p.45).  The literature relies on observable behavior to illustrate that transformational learning has occurred, when what has changed is how the individual views consciousness related to self (Cranton & Kasl, 2012 p.395).  There is much emphasis on action being the outcome of transformative learning’s final phase. I agree with Newman’s view of action and learning as inseparable in his statement “Action is the generative force of learning; the context in which learning takes place” (Newman 2014 p.353).

Newman takes great issue with the way spirituality is associated with transformation learning in the much of the literature. Spirituality implies a supernatural force at work. One example he provides is from Tisdell’s use of Life-Force that makes the sweeping claim,  “Given that the Life-force is everywhere and the process of meaning-making is happening all the time, people’s spirituality is always present (though usually unacknowledged) in the learning environment” (Newman 2012, p.47). Newman suggests the strong language creates a no-lose statement. The first statement given implies it is known and cannot be challenged. If I were to counter that spirituality is not present, an opposing view could simply counter with the claim that it is, but I have not experienced it. As his final rebuttal contends “I remain convinced that religious belief and spirituality have not place in education because neither can be taught or learnt” (Newman 2014 p. 348) I wish to let the reader know that Newman has a well-articulated position that is worthy of readying in its entirety. 

Quantifying study

There have been numerous studies documenting the growth and development resulting from transformational learning (Merriam, 2004).   While most studies have been qualitative, this research provides quantified results.  The rationale behind the study is to find which, if any, of the ten precursors are more valuable and for educators to utilize this information to develop methods that encourage each one. If a method is found unimportant, efforts can be re-directed to more valuable precursors. (Brock, 2010 p. 125). The study of 256 undergraduate business school students from a major northeastern city in the United States asked the following five research questions  (Brock, 2010, p. 138).

1.      “What is the incidence of reporting transformative learning among undergraduate business school students and how comparable is this to other reports in the transformative learning literature?

2.      What is the incidence of reporting the 10 precursor steps to transformative learning?

3.      Are more of the 10 precursor steps of transformative learning remembered by those reporting transformative learning that by those who do not report it?

4.      Are any of the 10 transformative learning steps more predictive of experiencing transformative learning than others? If so, which one or ones?

5.      Does the reporting of transformative learning increase as a college student has spent more time in school? “

While I won’t report the full scope of the study here, there are some results that are worthy.  The most prevalent precursor step was a disorienting dilemma, especially ones about actions (56.3%) and less so about social role (43.8%). This is to be expected as students are challenged to think in new ways at the collegiate level. Second, most prevalently shared was recognizing one’s iscontent (54. 3%). Adult educators can foster critical reflection on assumptions by journaling, specific role paying, and group discussions. The findings support the importance of critical reflection in the transformational learning  process.   The third most reported precursor was exploring new roles (44.1%). Students, in the business school were able to practice new strategies that they may wish to adopt in their future workplace. (Brock, 2010 p. 132-135).  These findings can guide educator’s efforts when seeking methods to increase the incidence of transformational learning. To summarize the reading, this study is attempting to quantify the precursors of Mezirow’s transformational learning to better guide the efforts of educators who wish promote transformational learning for their learners.  

Implications

This literature, taken as a whole, leads to a few conclusions. First, to take part in transformational learning, there needs to be a higher order of cognition. The transformational learning process relies on skills that may not be readily available to every individual. Much of what I read supports the skills involved as being complex. Building upon this assumption, it could be a narrow group capable of this process. 

The second implication I drew from the readings would be the difficult task of establishing and environment that would meet Mezirow’s ten pre-cursors leading to new perspective and then take learners through the entire process. While I do agree it can happen organically, to set out to make it happen seems unlikely. I see tangible value to learners within some components of the transformational process; such as being able to identify one’s assumptions surrounding new information, embracing the discomfort, having self-reflection, and then deciding what to do next.  Perhaps more time and effort could be spent educating the learner how to utilize the transformational learning process to learn. I will leave the reader with this idea from Newman: “Try dropping the word transformative, or replacing it with the word good, in other texts on transformative learning and see how little effect on the meaning the changes have “ (Newman 2014, p. 350).

Reflections

The most significant information I learned from the literature was that there is really no clear answer. While trying to make sense of a concept, that I have little personal experience with, I found Sheran Merriam’s “The Role of Cognitive Development in Mezirow’s Transformational Learning Theory” (Merriam, 2004). I was intrigued and went searching for more correlation to higher-level thinking skills and the transformational learning process. This is how I stumbled upon Michael Newman’s challenge to the topic and subsequently followed the breadcrumbs to follow up papers by Dirkx, Cranton & Kasl, and Newman himself, a bit of a conversation if you will. While I did not do his argument justice here, Newman’s explanations actually helped me acknowledge the complexity and understand why I couldn’t make easy sense of it. Two points stood out to me. First, Newman’s assertion that one could view the results of transformational learning, as a common learning event. Second, his idea that we string many significant learning events together over a lifetime and continually gain new information that changes our perspective of the world and naturally, our reactions. Much like a circle, it never ends.  I identified closely with his other notion, that the inclusion of spirituality is unnecessary in the academic realm. As I read his points, I began to evaluate my original difficulties understanding Mezirow’s theory. I think I was picking up those same undertones as and wrestling with the religious implications within this academic world, and his words were validating and I was able to review the process differently. 

References:

Brock, S (2010) Measuring the Importance of Precursor Steps to Transformative Learning. 

     American Association for Adult and Continuing Education,  60(2)122-142

Merriam, S (2004). The Role of Cognitive Development in Mezirow’s Transformational 

     Learning Theory Adult Education Quarterly, 55(1)60-68

Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Mezirow, J (2004). Forum Comment on Sharan Merriam’s “The Role of Cognitive 

     Development in Mezirow’s Transformational Learning Theory” Adult Education Quarterly,

     55(1) 69-70)

Newman M (2012). Calling Transformative Learning into Question: Some Mutinous thoughts     

     American Association for Adult and Continuing Education 62(1) 36-55

Work Discussed  in a Secondary source :

Bassechesm M. (1984) Dialectical thinking and adult development. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Bee, H.L (2000) Journey of adulthood (4^th ed.) Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Cranton, P (1994). Understanding and promoting transformative learning: A guide for educators 

     of adults. San Francisco;  Jossey-Bass.

Mezirow, J (1978). Education for perspective transformation; Women re-entry programs in 

     community college. New York: Center for Adult Education, Teachers College, Columbia 

     University.

Mezirow, J (1994). Understanding transformation theory. Adult Education Quarterly, 46, 22-32.

Meziro, J (2000) Learning to think like an adult; Core concepts of transformation theory. In J.  

     Mezirow & Associates (Eds). Learning as transformation (pp. 3-334). San Fransisco;                  

     Jossey-Bass 

Taylor, E.W (1997). Building upon theoretical debate: A critical Review of the empirical studies 

     of Mezirow’s transformation learning theory. Adult Education Quarterly, 48(1), 34-447. 

Taylor, E. W, (1998). The theory and practice of transformative learning: A critical review. Retrieved: January 31, 2015 from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED423422.pdf

Tennant, M.C (1993), Perspective transformation and adult development. Adult Education 

     Quarterly, 44(1). 34-42

	The main themes/ideas in the literature	Application of the main ideas in practice
Idea 1	Outcomes of transformational Learning	Change in perspective that is a shift in assumptions of self and beliefs. Changes who the person is and what they believe.
Idea 2	Is higher cognition necessary to achieve transformational learning	Students must be of a higher level of thinking to process the ten steps of transformational learning - the ten steps of TML
Idea 3	Debate over Transformational learning as an abstract theory or educational practice	Is transformational learning an event, a theory, or another name for good teaching and good learning?
Idea 4	An attempt to quantify the importance of the ten transformational steps	Quantifying the importance of each of the precursor steps can be used by practioners to find appropriate methods to guide learners through each step.

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Literature Review: Transformational Learning

Darbi Strahle

Ball State University

Introduction

Transformational learning is a constructivist theory about the process of creating new or revised meaning of an experience to guide future action. It seeks to explain how adults' expectations, framed within cultural assumptions, directly influence the meaning they derive from their experience. (Taylor, 2015). In an effort to make meaning of our experiences, we reflect on our attitudes and beliefs gained from these particular events. Whether learners chose to transform current attitudes and beliefs, one must consider a process which results in a new meaning perspective. Developed by Jack Mezirow, transformational learning is indicative of a learning process that includes the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately with people of other cultures (Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner, 2007). 

In transformational learning, there is typically a dramatic change where the learner reaches a shift in perspective. This shift results from a critical examination of one’s own assumptions, values, and beliefs, and of the foundations and expectations of the system in which one operates. (Nemec, 2012). The learner is required to look at his or her new world from a different perspective, often in conflict with deeply held values and beliefs, leading to a more reflective, inclusive, and open worldview.

This theory is interesting because it allows the learner to analyze new knowledge or skills to view situations in a diverse manner. More than any other learning approach, this theory has captured the attention of adult educators over the past fifteen years. (Merriam, Cafarella, Baumgartner, 2007).

The objective of this literature review is to identify four general themes and implications of transformational learning.

Mezirow’s Psychocritical Approach and Implications

Mezirow’s transformational learning theory discusses how adults make sense of their life experience and defines this as, “the process of using a prior interpretation to construe a new or revised interpretation of the meaning of one’s experience in order to guide future action.” (Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner, 2007). Mezirow’s theory is made up of ten phases or steps but there are four main components involved within this theory.

The four components of this learning process are experience, critical reflection, reflective discourse and action (Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner, 2007).  In the experience component the learner has been provoked by a life-changing event, which initiates the transformative learning process.  This experience can be a major life catastrophe or a less dramatic dilemma created by an instructor in an educational setting.  In the critical reflection component, the learner is faced with decisions to examine the assumptions and beliefs that have been brought up due to this life-changing event.  Reflective discourse occurs when the learner constructs new meaning of the new context through conversations or discussions with others to assess and rationalize the assumptions or beliefs.  Lastly the action component, which permits the learner to make further decisions about making necessary changes based on the life changing event.

One implication of this theory understands how adults use prior knowledge to make sense of new experiences and shape future action. Transformational learning requires a form of education very different from that commonly associated with children. New information is only a resource in the adult learning process and therefore to become meaningful, the learner must incorporate new knowledge into an existing frame of reference and spend time in active reflection to incorporate new information.

Transformational learning in Sociocultural Contexts and Implications

As people engage in new experiences, such as learning to live in a second culture, the meaning perspectives act as a lens through which each new experience is interpreted and given meaning and a worldview shift can occur. Intercultural competency is the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately with people of other cultures and also be addressed throughout curriculum and experiential learning, such as study abroad and service learning.

These experiences are explored in relationship to deeply held a meaning structure, which either reinforces the perspective (assimilation) or gradually stretches its boundaries (accommodation), depending on the degree of congruency (Taylor, 2016). However, when an unfamiliar experience cannot be assimilated into the familiar meaning perspective, it is often rejected or acts as catalyst for a transformation. This catalyst (disorienting dilemma), such as culture shock, can initiate a critical reevaluation of deeply held assumptions of how to make sense of the world (Taylor, 2016).

Within sociocultural contexts, transformative experiences are often stressful. This type of change often leads to a perspective transformation or in some cases a worldview shift. It is this kind of perspective transformation that is likely indicative of intercultural competency.

Unresolved Issues in Transformative Learning and Implications

The growing knowledge of transformative learning has created gaps and areas of controversy as well as research findings that attempt to broaden the theory. Since its introduction to the field of adult education, the abundance of research has led to an assumption that Mezirow's view is the singular concept of transformative learning theory. However, there are a variety of ideas of transformation that have emerged over the years, such as John Dirkx's psychoanalytic conceptions, Robert Kegan's psychodevelopmental conceptions, J. Johnson-Bailey and M. Alfred's race-centric conceptions, Paolo Freire's social emancipatory conceptions, and Edmund O'sullivan's planetary conceptions, to mention just a few (Taylor, 2016). These additional theories all contain aspects of the transformative learning process.

Research about transformational learning and intercultural competency has continued to increase since transformational learning theory was introduced to intercultural studies in the 1990s (Taylor, 2016). Much of the research has shown that the theory explains a great deal about the learning process of intercultural competency, defined as the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately with people of other cultures. Research has also broadened its application beyond a focus on Western strangers living successfully in host cultures to exploring a variety of different populations inclusive of immigrants, students from different countries, women, and humanitarian workers. In addition, short-term cultural experiences are now being explored as potential transformative experiences.

Trends in Transformational Learning and Implications

Interest has continued to grow in how the transformative learning theory can be integrated in formal and informal settings. Adults learn in a variety of ways through numerous methods and theories. Transformational learning can be applied in hands on experience related to careers, projects, and with the use of technology such as online education. Simulation settings are also supportive to this process and detailed action plans that include concrete goals the learners will follow up with, strategies to achieve these goals, and create tools to receive feedback from peers (Cranton, 2002).

While research shows ways we can integrate technology in the classroom and workplace, there are also emotional and spiritual aspects of transformational learning that need to be addressed. Whenever possible, we should make the time for one-on-one interaction with a student who is changing beliefs and more importantly, we can encourage people to connect with each other. Formal learning networks or support groups can be established, but generally this kind of support works best when students initiate it in their own way. Depending on the context, we can also suggest that student’s link up with discussion groups, professional associations, or other resources where people will have had experiences similar to theirs (Cranton, 2002).

Not all educators and not all participants are pre-disposed to transformational learning.  However, the transformational learning theory is used in various educational fields around the world.  The learner must critically reflect on his or her experience, talk with others about his or her world view in order to gain the best judgment, and act on the new perspective. Research about transformational learning has continued to increase since transformative learning theory was introduced to intercultural studies in the 1990s (Taylor, 2016). When providing a positive and safe learning experience, critical reflection can transform deeply held values and beliefs, leading to a more reflective, inclusive, and open worldview.

Conclusion

Transformative learning revolves around a profound moment in an individual's life, something that generally happens to everyone, and then causes self-examination and critical reflection. This theory interests me, as I myself have gone through the various phases of this theory as both a student and an educator. The theory of transformative learning is one that applies to all levels of individuals, but has the greatest impact on adults. It is a theory that can be applied in a person’s own life, the workplace, the classroom, and in various educational field.
This was the first time I had written a literature review so I approached it with some hesitation. I began by constructing the annotated bibliography. After completing the annotated bibliography, I had a comprehensive understanding of my research topic (transformational learning) and was well acquainted with a few of the major points but was still lacking the organization needed to take the next step of writing a proper literature review. To gain clarity, I wrote down keywords and ideas from the different articles and authors and began an outline. This exercise helped to combine my sources, creating a discourse between the researchers and illustrating gaps for my personal research to fill.
 Writing the literature review was a beneficial process to help with the general understanding of transformational learning. A major difficulty I have when writing is organization and creating a concise point. During my explanations, I get caught up in a train of thought and tend to over-think or over-write my purpose. This is evident by the feedback I receive from my professor to focus on the main components of transformative learning and write an in-depth review, rather than touching every aspect of transformative from the surface. This practice will benefit me in the future when organizing papers or presenting ideas on multi-faceted subject. 

Table 1
Summary of the literature review
	General Themes	Implications
Idea #1	Mezirow’s Psychocritical Approach	Understanding how adults make sense of their life experience using prior knowledge to shape future action.
Idea #2	Transformational learning in Sociocultural Contexts.	As the learner engages in new experiences, such as learning to live in a different culture, a transformation or a worldview shift can occur.
Idea #3	Identifying unresolved issues in Transformational Learning	The growing knowledge of transformative learning has created gaps and areas of controversy as well as research findings that attempt to broaden the theory.
Idea #4	Trends in Transformational Learning	There are also emotional and spiritual aspects of transformational learning, as well as integrating technology and learning in the workplace that shapes learning.

References

Cranton, P. (2002). Teaching for Transformation. New directions for adult and continuing education, 2002(93), 63-72. DOI:10.1002/ace.50

Merriam, Caffarella, Baumgartner. (2007). Learning in Adulthood. San Fransisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Nemec, P. B. (2012). Transformative learning. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 35(6), 478-479. doi:10.1037/h0094585

Taylor, E. W. (2015). Transformative Learning. In J. M. Bennett (Ed.), The SAGE Encyclopedia of Intercultural Competence (Vol. 2, pp. 818-820). Los Angeles: SAGE Reference. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com.proxy.bsu.edu/ps/i.do?p=GVRL&sw=w&u=munc80314&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CCX6279400266&sid=summon&asid=bfb9837c362bc7c94c1cb1eb745592bf

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